Micro Finance and Women Empowerment

‘Micro Finance and Women Empowerment ’ By Ms. Varsha Parikh Lecturer Department of Extension and Communication Faculty of Family and Community Sciences The M. S. University of Baroda Vadodara 390002,Gujarat, India E-mail : [email  protected] com Micro Finance and Women Empowerment By Ms. Varsha Parikh ABSTRACT Self-help groups intermediated by microcredit have been shown to have positive effects on women. Micro finance refers to small savings, credit and insurance services extended to socially and economically disadvantaged segments of society. At present one of the successful ways through which microfinance services are being provided to poor people is through Self-Help Groups. The performance of different states SHGs data presented by different authors in different states shows new direction where microfinance is helping poor women coping with vulnerable situations building of assets, new livelihoods and accumulated savings help the coping strategies of the poor. Thus, present paper focus on the concept of SHGs and Micro Finance in India, Performance of SHGs and Microfinance scenario in different states of India, SHGs and Bank linkages in India and impact of microfinance on empowering women along with suggestions. Key Words : SHGs, Micro Finance, Statewise performance of SHGs & Microfinance, SHGs and Bank linkage, suggestions Micro Finance and Women Empowerment By Ms. Varsha Parikh Empowerment is defined as the processes by which women take control and ownership of their lives through expansion of their choices. Thus, it is the rocess of acquiring the ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability has previously been denied. The core elements of empowerment have been defined as agency (the ability to define one’s goals and act upon them), awareness of gendered power structures, self-esteem and self-confidence (Kabeer 2001). Empowerment can take place at a hierarchy of different levels – individual, househ old, community and societal – and is facilitated by providing encouraging factors (e. g. , exposure to new activities, which can build capacities) and removing inhibiting factors (e. . , lack of resources and skills). â€Å"The status of women is a barometer of the democratization of any state, an indicator of how human rights are respected in it† (Mikhail Gorbachev). The root cause of women’s oppression in India is patriarchy which has snatched off their legitimate powers leaving them completely defenseless and weak. Despite more than five decades of interventions to raise the status of women since independences, women in rural areas continue to be overwhelmed by social and economic bosses. Rural women throughout India, irrespective of caste and religion, continue to have a subordinate status both within home and outside. Extent of awareness and access to credit, higher level of education and training are prime determinants of women’s status and role in the process of development. Thus for women, two vital processes have been identified as important for empowerment. The first is social mobilization and collective agency, as poor women often lack the basic capabilities and self-confidence to counter and challenge existing disparities and barriers against them. Often, change agents are needed to catalyse social mobilization consciously. Second, the process of social mobilization needs to be accompanied and complemented by economic security. As long as the disadvantaged suffer from economic deprivation and livelihood insecurity, they will not be in a position to mobilize (UNDP 2001). Concept of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in India In India, Self – Help Group (SHG) is a small voluntary association of poor people, preferably from the same socioeconomic background. They come together for the purpose of solving their common problems through self-help and mutual help. The SHG promotes small savings among its members. The savings are kept with a bank. This common fund is in the name of the SHG. The term Self Help Groups (SHGs) is generally used in India to refer to unregistered groups of 10 to 20 members involved primarily in savings and credit activities. Over 90 percent of these groups have only women members. The concept of SHG is based on the following principles: ? Self-help supplemented with mutual help can be a powerful vehicle for the ? poor in their socioeconomic development; ? Participative financial services management is more responsive and efficient; ? Poor need not only credit support, but also savings and other services; ? Poor can save and are bankable and SHGs as clients, result in wider out reach, lower transaction cost and much lower risk costs for the banks; ? Creation of a common fund by contributing small savings on a regular basis; ? Flexible democratic system of working; ? Loaning is done mainly on trust with a bare documentation and without any security; ? Amounts loaned are small, frequent and for short duration; ? Defaults are rare mainly due to group pressure; and Periodic meetings non-traditional savings. Concept of Micro-Credit Micro credit refers to a programme that provides credit for self employment & other financial and business services (including savings and technological assistance micro). Credit refers to small amounts of Credit both for production and consumption to poor households who remain or choose to remain outside the reach of formal credit system and have demonstrated their credit worthiness Why Mic ro Credit – Because it is a powerful tool for sustainable development of the poor and removal of poverty on a term basis. Micro Credit – A Pathway to Empowering SHGs women The lack of access to credit for the poor particularly women is attributable to practical difficulties arising from the discrepancy between the mode of operation followed by financial institutions and the economic characteristics and financing needs of low-income households. For example, commercial lending institutions require that borrowers have a stable source of income out of which principal and interest can be paid back according to he agreed terms. However, the income of many self employed households is not stable, regardless of its size. A large number of small loans are needed to serve the poor, but lenders prefer dealing with large loans in small numbers to minimize administration costs. They also look for collateral with a clear title – which many low-income households do not have. In addition bankers tend to consider low income households a bad risk imposing exceedingly high information monitoring costs on oper ation. Over the last ten years, however, successful experiences in providing finance to small entrepreneur and producers demonstrate that poor people, when given access to responsive and timely financial services at market rates, repay their loans and use the proceeds to increase their income and assets. This is not surprising since the only realistic alternative for them is to borrow from informal market at an interest much higher than market rates. Community banks, NGOs and grassroot savings and credit groups around the world have shown that these microenterprise loans can be profitable for borrowers and for the lenders, making microfinance one of the most effective strategy of empowerment. Empowering women socio-economically through increased awareness of their right and duties as well as access to resources is a decisive step towards greater security for them. Women are in for a new deal today as they are the focus of economic development. SHGs are considered as one of the significant tools to adopt participatory approach for the economic development of women. It is an important institution for improving the life of women on various social components. It plays an important role in differentiating between consumption credit and production credit. Self help group disburses of making them enterprising women and encouraging them to enter entrepreneurial activities. Credit needs of the rural women are fulfilled through the SHGs. Thus SHG is considered as a variable organization of the rural poor particularly of the women for delivering micro credit in order to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Some of the studies on SHGs of the rural poor particularly those managed by women, successfully demonstrated how to mobilize and manage thrift activities, maintain credit linkages with banks and effectively undertake some income generating activities etc. Micro finance programmes are currently being promoted as a key strategy for simultaneously addressing both poverty alleviation and women’s empowerment. Before 1990s, credit schemes for women were almost negligible. There were certain misconception about the poor people that they need loan at subsidized rates of interest on soft terms, they lack skills, capacity to save, credit worthiness and therefore are not bankable. Nevertheless, the experiences of several and SHGs reveal that rural poor are actually efficient managers of credit and finance. Availability of timely and adequate credit is essential for them in their enterprises rather than subsidies. Earlier government efforts through various poverty alleviation schemes for self-employment by providing credit and subsidy received little success. Since most of them were target based involving various government agencies and banks. During the economic crisis, self-help microcredit groups served as important cushions and safety nets. A high proportion of the funds made available for self-help microcredit schemes were utilized by women, enabling them to meet the subsistence needs of their families during those difficult economic times (ESCAP 2002). Many self-help programmes have also incorporated elements of savings, which can be used for purposes such as health insurance and emergency loans, thereby serving as private safety nets. In all, one of the successful ways through which microfinance services are being provided to poor people in India is through Self-Help Groups. It all started with experiments of some non-government organizations (NGOs) working in south India during early 80s and has now come to be known as Self-Help Group approach to microfinance. With intervention of Reserve Bank of India (RBI), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) and other organisations, So, in this manner in contrast to the Grameen model of Bangladesh, the SHG based microfinance in India encourages SHG members to manage group’s financial affairs like savings and loan recovery and funds are deposited in a local commercial bank in the name of the SHG. Members’ savings are initially used to issue small loans to needy members. Self Help Group bank linkage has become a supplementary channel for providing financial services from formal financial institutions to poor people. Under this linkage arrangement, SHGs are assessed by bank for bank credit after about 6 months of their functioning. If SHGs are found functioning well, then, bank credit is sanctioned up to four times the savings of the SHG. After gaining some experience of credit handling, SHG is issued bigger amount of loan by a ommercial bank and members are free to decide the end use of this loan, its purpose, repayment instalment, etc. without any interference of the promoting NGO or the bank since SHG is responsible to the bank for repayment of the loan. Women managed self-help groups have shown remarkable growth during the last decade in India. SHGs have proved to be very versatile and their members have successfully taken up both economic and community related inter ventions. SHGs provide poor women an opportunity to take decisions involving themselves, their groups and their lives. Savings and credit is normally used as an entry point for formation of SHGs since it gives the members a chance to participate in decision-making and satisfies their short-term credit needs. Realising that they can be a promising tool in capacity building of rural poor especially women, central and state governments have vigorously supported the SHG-centric models of development in India. Sarojini Ganju Thakur and Anand Mohan Tiwari in their article reports ‘Whether SHG-based Micro-credit Programmes can Remove Poverty? A case study of SHG-based programmes in Patan District of Gujarat, reported that, besides Swa-Shakti Project of Department of Women & Child Development (DWCD) which was launched in 1998, many other agencies have taken up programmes for supporting women’s SHG movement. NABARD has launched a major initiative for accelerating credit linkage to SHGs and over 3,25,000 SHGs are now accessing bank credit. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK, an autonomous organisation promoted by DWCD), Swarnjayanti Gram Swa-rozgar Yojana (SGSY) and Watershed Development Projects of Ministry of Rural Development, Mahila Samakhya of Department of Education, Women in Agriculture, Swayamsiddha of DWCD, Jeevika Project of Government of Gujarat, Stree Shakti, Mission Shakti, SHG Missions in some other states are supporting formation and strengthening of SHGs in a big way. After success of the initial pilot, this strategy was extended to every commercial and Regional Rural Bank. Some second-tier micro-finance institutions (MFIs) like RMK, Friends of Women World Banking (FWWB), Basix, Sanghmitra Rural Financial Services and SIDBI Micro-credit Foundation, etc. have emerged in the last decade. It is estimated that around 2. 5 to 3 million borrowers, mostly women, are linked with this mechanism in India. Status of SHGs and Microfinance in different states of India The regional development of micro credit programmes under self help groups has wide variations in terms of growth and performance among the states in India. Das, Nanda and Rath reported about the performance of southern region, especially Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and states that it has been the best in the promotion of Self Help groups in India. According to them these two states account for more than 66 percent of Self-help groups receiving loans through bank linkage. Andhra Pradesh has 53 percent of total SHFs due to more women enterprises, higher level of literacy and strong co-operative institutions. They also reveals that the southern region has the best performance where Rs. 5242. 42 million are distributed among the self help groups. The eastern region has second best performance where cumulative number of SHGs bank loan up to 2005 is Rs. 123256 million and per capita credit per SHG is Rs. 20428. 5 million. Sarojini Ganju Thakur and Anand Mohan Tiwari in their article reports ‘Whether SHG-based Micro-credit Programmes can Remove Poverty? A case study of SHG-based programmes in Patan District of Gujarat, mentioned that the SHG-driven micro-finance movement has flourished in Gujarat. Besides the State Government which is promoting these institutions in a big way, many NGOs are actively involved in formation and nurturing of SHGs. Although the overall focus of individual interventions vary, development of micro-finance and micro-enterprise appears to be a common theme in majority of these programmes. Besides the Government and other Public sector organizations like NABARD, a large number of NGOs, including few nationally recognized ones like Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), Agha Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP), Sadguru and many other NGOs have formed women’s SHGs with the support from various government programmes. The recent earthquake in Kutch and neighbouring districts motivated many NGOs from outside to start work in these areas and they also formed some women’s SHGs. At a conservative estimate, more than 200,000 SHGs are functioning in the State, with Rural Development Department alone supporting over 100,000 SHGs. Of these, close to 60,000 SHGs have been linked with commercial banks that have extended credit of approximately Rs. 200 million. SGSY claims to have formed 23,000 in the State of Gujarat. The role of Micro Finance Institutions on Socio-Economic Development Rural Poor in Orissa described by Das, Nanda and Rath. They reported that; – Costly loans from informal sources have been significantly reduced as a proportion of a household’s debt portfolio. – The interest rates have come down drastically. – It has helped the poor to diversify livelihood options. – It has helped in generating incremental employment. – It also has helped in reducing poverty. Debadutta Kumar Panda added that, through the microfinance revolution, rural villagers of Orissa, the most backward state of India, have undergone a remarkable social upliftment. The value and acceptance of women has also increased substantially and is analyzed through a series of case study. Table : Inter-state performance of SHGs up to March, 2005 (Rs. In million) |S. N. |Region and State |Cumulative No. of SHGs Bank Loan |Per Capita Credit per SHG | |Northern region | |1 |Himachal Pradesh |17798 |31746. | |2 |Rajasthan |60006 |23564. 9 | |3 |Haryana |3351 |59871. 6 | |4 |Punjab |3091 |47156. 2 | |5 |Jammu & Kashmir |1647 |34353. 8 | |6 |New Delhi |125 |10512 | | | |7 |Orissa |123256 |20428. 5 | |8 |Bihar |28015 |24339. | |9 |Jharkhand |21531 |33195. 3 | |10 |West Bengal |92698 |13622. 4 | | | |11 |Madhya Pradesh |45105 |2462603 | |12 |Chhatisgarh |18596 |92605. | |13 |Uttar Pradesh |119648 |26375. 6 | |14 |Uttranchal |14043 |41020. 4 | | | |15 |Gujarat |24712 |2777. | |16 |Maharashtra |71146 |31401. 7 | |17 |Goa |408 |74068. 6 | | | |18 |Andhra Pradesh |492927 |55709. | |19 |Karnataka |163198 |33710. 7 | |20 |Kerala |60809 |41038. 8 | |21 |Tami lnNadu |22698 |76026. 9 | (Source: As quoted in Das, Nanda and Rath, â€Å"Micro Finance and Rural development in India’(Ed. ),2008. Such instances have shown that microfinance has proved very relevant and effective in India and offers the rural and urban poor the possibility of gradually breaking away from exploitation and isolation. Over the years, the provision of microfinance has brought significant increased productivity among the rural poor. Self reliance and sustainability of income generating and micro enterprise development programmes of self help groups have been successfully achieved with effective linkage and networking. The interplay between the two sub systems of socio-economic development, i. . , micro enterprise development and the micro credit and saving mechanism has been quite smooth and effective in the case of SHGs linkage to mainstream institutions. On the other hand the progress of the SHG-bank linkage programme is also rapidly taking stride. Since inc eption as shown below the programme took off with a humble beginning of linking 255 groups in the first year i. e. 1992-93 with a loan disbursement of Rs 2. 9 million only. Average loan per SHG was about Rs 11. 37 thousand in 1992-93 whereas it has grown to Rs 61. 68 thousand in the year 2006-07. There has been a tremendous growth in the number of groups over time. More than 29. 2 million SHGs with a membership of 40. 95 million households are linked to bank credit till March 2007 as shown below. No. of   SHGs linked to Banks in India (1992-93   to 2006-2007) |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Year |Cumulative No. of   SHGs |Bank loan (Rs. Million) | |1992-93 |255 |2. 9 | |1993-94 |620 |6. | |1994-95 |2122 |24. 5 | |1995-96 |4757 |60. 6 | |1996-97 |8598 |118. 4 | |1997-98 |14317 |237. | |1998-99 |32995 |570. 7 | |1999-2000 |114775 |1929. 8 | |2000-01 |263825 |4809. 0 | |2001-02 |461478 |10263. 0 | |2002-03 |717360 20487. 0 | |2003-04 |1079091 |39042. 0 | |2004-05 |1628476 |68984. 6 | |2005-06 |2238565 |113980. 0 | |2006-07 |2924973 |180410. | (Source: Various Reports of MCID, NABARD; NABARD (2004) and NABARD website  ) The Table above shows that there has been a rapid growth of SHGs that are linked with banks i. e. Commercial banks, Regional Rural Banks and Cooperative banks for meeting credit requirements and other financial needs of SHG members in recent years. Particularly after 2000 the number of SHGs linked to banks has grown exponentially. In addition, there is other experience e. g. the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh model is being replicated in various parts of India. SIDBI is also promoting microfinance through NGOs who are in the business of microfinance. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) is also in the business of promoting microfinance in India through NGOs. It is estimated that the total outreach of Microfinance Institutions is about 7. 5 million (Sa-Dhan website). If 40 million of SHG-bank linkages are added to this, the total outreach of microfinance in India would become truly significant keeping in mind that there are about 60 million poor households in India. Empowering SHG women through Micro Finance in India The basic objective of SHG is that it acts as the forum for members to provide space and support to each other. SHGs comprise of very poor people who don’t have access to formal financial institutions. It enables its members to learn to cooperate and work in a group environment. The essential principle of SHG is strong saving programme, which helps it to reduce dependence on financial institutions and develop self-reliance. Saving help the group members to diversify their income generating activities and imbibe financial discipline in the group. Self Help groups create confidence for the economic self-reliance of rural poor, particularly among women who are mostly invisible in the social structure. These groups enable them to come together for a common objective and gain strength from each other to deal with exploitation which they are facing in several forms. Further, micro financing i. e. provisioning of small financial services and products to poor people is contributing to the process of development by creating conditions that are conducive to human development. It has a strong gender orientation. About 90% SHGs that are linked to banks are reported to be of women as mentioned earlier. Through these groups, women empowerment is taking place. Their participation in economic activities and decision making at household and at society level is increasing. It is making the process of development participatory, democratic, independent of subsidy and sustainable. Therefore, microfinance through SHGs is contributing to poverty reduction in a sustainable manner. Studies have shown overall positive impact of SHG bank linkage programme on the socio-economic conditions of rural poor (Puhazhendi and Badatya, 2002;   MYRADA, 2002). It is reported that significant changes in the living standards of SHG members have taken place in terms of increase in income level, assets, savings, borrowing capacity and income generating activities. There are signs of empowerment taking place among women members of SHGs. An important aspect of the empowering impact of micro-credit is related to the process of organisation of women into groups. For women who have been confined to households, their mobilisation into a collective, which could be of self help groups, smaller groups, cooperatives, etc. propels them into a more community-oriented entity, which gives them the basis for negotiating, sharing and bargaining at multiple levels   – the house hold, community and government. Such groups give women the strength and self-confidence to resist the exploitation that they face within the household and community. There are innumerable examples of the nature of strength women have acquired after joining a group. At the same time there are illustrations to show that organisation without changing the resource base is not a sufficient condition of empowerment. However, many practitioners have not fully understood the approach of SHGs. Women members of the SHG have shown increased levels of socio-political awareness and empowerment in the community, raised levels of negotiating power, and changes in community norms, particularly in terms of changing attitudes to gender expectations. (Dash A. , 2003). As stated by Ghosh Rajshree in her article Women’s indicators of empowerment through icrofinance highlighted following major aspects of the empowerment. †¢ Ability to save and access loans †¢ Opportunity to undertake an economic activity †¢ Mobility-Opportunity to visit nearby towns †¢ Awareness- local issues, MFI procedures, banking transactions †¢ Skills for income generation †¢ Decision making within the household †¢ Group mobilization in support of indiv idual clients- action on †¢ social issues †¢ Role in community development activities Suggestions and Conclusion There is no doubt that micro finance can provided micro solution to poor women but it will yield moderate economic benefits. The SHG-bank linkage yet to make substantial impact in poverty belts of India. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have been successful in organizing self-help groups and other states should develop the self-help groups in our country. There is an urgent need for Government initiative into the self-help groups. And also more dedication and commitment of the NGO personnel is needed to make the group members understand the concept and essence of forming the group. Unless the group is fully aware and convinced regarding the concept of self help outside push will hardly work. The dedication of the functionaries coupled with a little more professional input to the NGO would definitely lead to a self-sustainable self-help regime in the area. The members should be provided training in micro enterprises so that the credit availed by them can be used productively. The commercial banks must provide a greater linkage to self-help groups in providing them higher amount of bank loans. Further, for micro finance programme to be cost-effective in bringing about the empowerment of women, it would require, 1. providing business training, 2. investing in women’s general education and literacy, 3. roviding guidance in balancing family and work responsibilities 4. providing a forum for dialogue on social and political issues, such as, women’s rights and community problems, 5. giving women experience in decision – making promoting women’s ownership, control and participatory governance in their micro finance programmes. Micro finance programmes , thus, has been very successful in reaching women. This gives micro finance institution an extra-ordinary opportunity to act intentionally to empower poor women and to minimize the potentially negative impacts some women experienced. References : Das S. K. , Nanda B. P. and Rath J. , Micro Finance and Rural Development in India (Ed. ), New Century Publications, New Delhi, India. 2008 Karmakar K. G. , Micro Finance in India(Ed). Sage publications, New Delhi, 2008 Debadutta Kumar Panda , ‘Self Help through Microfinance: A Paradigm Shift in Orissa, India’ Ghosh Rajshree, Women’s indicators of empowerment through microfinance Sharma K. C, Microfinance through Self-Help Groups-Status and Emerging Challenges   http://www. birdindia. org. in/admin/Literacy/413. doc. Thakur S. G. and Tiwari A. , Whether SHG-based Micro-credit Programmes can Remove Poverty? A case study of SHG-based programmes in Patan District of Gujarat. http://www. wiego. org/ahmedabad/papers/Tiwari_Can_SHGs_remove_poverty. doc. http://www. edarural. com/impact/execsums. pdf. http://www. trcollege. net/articles/40-empowerment http://www. gdrc. org/icm/conceptpaper-india. html http://www. ivcs. org. uk/ijrs/April2008/Self%20Help%20through%20Microfinance%20in%20Orissa%20India. pdf. http://www. unescap. org/drpad/publication/bulletin%202002/ch6. pdf. http://unpan1. un. org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN024232. pdf. http://74. 125. 153. 132/search? q=cache:gzRW9N7hv7YJ:www. yesweb. org/2006/Publica

Abstract-writing guidelines Essay

An abstract allows the author to communicate to his audience the critical information of his original research in a concise manner. Foote (2006) and December and Katz (nd) recommend that in writing a good abstract, it should contain four elements – background or objectives, methods, results and conclusion. The background highlights the research questions and/or hypotheses, the methods describe the study population, data gathering techniques and statistical analysis. The results indicate the most pertinent findings and should contain actual data (Maughan 2001) and illustrative examples. The conclusion summarizes the findings and implications of the study (Rooryck & van Heuven 2003). The abstract should be between 100 and 250 words (Foote 2006, Shannon 2000, Guidelines for writing an abstract n. d. ) and should never be longer than a page (Rooryck & van Heuven 2003). Staiger (1965) suggests that a good abstract can have as little as 150 words once the information is concisely presented. Shannon (2000) and December and Katz (n. d. ) advise that nonessential information such as literature reviews should be avoided. In terms of style only common abbreviations should be used and only minimally (Foote 2006, Shannon 2000) and jargons should not be used (Maughan 2001). The future tense, adverbs and adjectives should also be avoided. The text should flow and be intelligible and easily comprehended by non-specialists and international readers. Abstract The traditional pattern of negotiation and placing of insurance risk between brokers and underwriters follows a face-to-face and paper approach but the new electronic placing system (EPS) is available to allow for submitting, transmitting and negotiating risks and processing claims electronically. This study explores the reasons for introducing, causes for the slow adoption and resistance to the implementation of the EPS systems. In a longitudinal research between 1993 and 1996, we surveyed 94 senior Market management, IT directors and staff, brokers and underwriters in the London Insurance Market using semi-structured interviews, observations of insurance risk placement work practices along with resource reviews. Reasons for introducing, delaying or resisting EPS introduction were copied verbatim and categorized based on its impact on work transformation or professional identity in the workplace. EPS was implemented because of the benefits of productivity, efficiency, speed and cost, its capability to facilitate simultaneous risk transmissions and potential to broaden job horizons. Reasons for resisting or delaying introduction of EPS were the resulting minimization of client, broker and underwriter interaction, the EPS’ inability to transmit supporting customer documents to potential underwriters and its potential to undermine the professional role and identity of brokers and underwriters and to worsen employment conditions and job satisfaction. Brokers also saw EPS as a potential threat to their employment security. There is resistance to technological change in the London Insurance Market and failure to adopt these technologies. EPS challenges the traditional mode of operation. We recommend that there be a balance between the use of computer technologies and traditional methodologies. References December, J. & Katz, S. nd, ‘What is an abstract’ The writing center, [Online] Available at: http://www. rpi. edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts. html Foote, M. 2006, ‘Some concrete ideas about manuscript abstracts’, Chest, vol. 129, no. 5, p. 1375-1377. ‘Guidelines for writing an abstract’, Sigma Theta Tau, International, [Online] Available at: http://www. umassd. edu/nursing/theta_kappa/research_committee/guidelines_abstract. doc Maughan, R. 2001, ‘Editorial: abstract thoughts’, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 19, no. 5, p. 305. Rooryck, Johan & van Heuven, V. 2003, ‘Guidelines for writing abstracts’, Leiden University, [Online] Available at: http://www. unc. edu/linguistics/confinfo_files/hil-tips. pdf Shannon, S. 2000, ‘Writing a structured abstract’, Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal, vol. 51, no. 6, p. 328-329. Staiger, D. L. 1965, ‘What today’s students need to know about writing abstracts’, Journal of Business Communication, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 29-33. Walsham, G. 2001, Making a world of difference: IT in a global context, Wiley, Chichester, pp. 150-160.

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Apple - Essay Example Verganti describes Job’s management style as â€Å"management by meaning† because of the scope of Job’s managerial decisions and objectives that focused on establishing value for both clients and employees (Verganti 2011, p. 1). The management approach identifies people’s psychological and social aspects and seeks to create meaning to people though incorporating their â€Å"rational, cultural, and emotional dimensions† (Verganti 2011, p. 1). This defines an abstract management approach that transcends a variety of management and leadership styles with the aim of meeting clients and employees’ needs. Jobs, especially after being asked to resign from Apple’s top management, incorporated democratic, visionary, and transformational management styles that he applied according to situations and desired meanings to be created (Dhima, Qorri, Arapi and Sinani 2011, p. 7). Christopher also offers an account of Job’s transformational leade rship style in the company and identifies him among top visionary leaders and managers of the period (Christopher 2012, p. 357). Job’s management style and its development from an experience in his career suffered a setback proved a success and led Apple to an innovative era. The diversified approach to Job’s management identifies effectiveness to meeting his ultimate objective of maximizing utility among employees and customers and the three incorporated management styles, democratic, transformational, and visionary management styles, succeeded in meeting employees needs towards output that generated products for customers’ utility. The transformational management style benefited Jobs’ approach because of its ability to empower and motivate employees towards achieving desired objectives. The developed potentials among employees and their desire to deliver culminated to the realized innovation and development of new products at Apple. Visionary managerial style, with its

Is the Federal Reserve Necessary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Is the Federal Reserve Necessary - Research Paper Example One such mistake, in United States history, that seems to be repeating its self, is the Great Depression. The Great Depression was a twelve year span, lasting from 1929 to 1941, in which the U.S. market was down and unemployment was at an all time high. It is, by far, considered one of the lowest points in U.S. history, but what is really intriguing is it was preceded by the â€Å"roaring twenties† a time of great economic growth and wealth. Many are comparing this with the recent economic boom of the late nineties, early two thousands; followed by the â€Å"recession† the U.S. is currently in. So the question arises, what led to these two periods of growth, followed by a severe recession? By taking a look at what, the value of a dollar is, what fractional reserve banking versus free banking are, and what caused the increase in moral hazard; and by looking at the arguments for and against each of these, we can identify the factors that led to this tragic example of hist ory repeating itself. This first factor we are going to uncover is what determines the value of the U.S. dollar, how it has changed over the years, and we as a nation are now suffering from those changes. The majority of governments use to base their circulation of paper money, or notes, on the amount of gold that backs up the notes; this is known as the gold standard. Toward the end of the great depression many individual still did not trust banks and so they were holding on to a large portion of gold. This led to a deficit of gold to support the dollar, so President Roosevelt ordered the gold confiscation of 1933 in which all individuals were required, with some exceptions, by law, to bring their gold to the U.S. treasury in exchange for a dollar equivalent. Another by product of the great depression was the Bretton Woods System; this is a system that was agreed upon by most of the world’s powers in 1944 which hoped to govern the monetary regulations of the nations. As a re sult they established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group. One of the major implications to the U.S., however, was the fact that they agreed maintain exchange rates by tying its currency to the U.S. dollar. Then in 1981, under the presidency of Nixon, the U.S. terminated the convertibility of the dollar to gold. This meant that the dollar is now a fiat currency backed by nothing but the promise of the federal government; this, in essence, did away with the gold standard. Proponents of doing away with the gold standard based their logic on the fact that they assumed the U.S would remain the number one world power. Though this held true for the first fifteen plus years after the gold standard was removed, that reign soon ended. Now with the U.S. owing over fourteen trillion dollars, and rising, to other nations, and our economy in a deep recession, many are left to wonde r if allowing our currency to be backed by only our government’s worth was such a good idea. Other groups against this move away from the gold standard, also argue that these nations which the U.S. government now owes are growing weary of whether or not the will be repaid. This is leading them to do more trading and lending with the still gold based European market, pushing our country deeper into the recession. This leads to where the dollar is distributed and stored by individual Americans and corporations, which is the U.S. banking system. There are two types of

Differences and connections between groupware and ordinary databases, Essay

Differences and connections between groupware and ordinary databases, and why they matter - Essay Example Various researchers have categorized groupware applications into 3 categories including conferencing tools, communication tools and collaborative management and working tools. In this scenario, communication tools comprise FAX, email and voice mail. The second category conferencing tools comprise voice, data and video conferencing, chat rooms and message boards. Finally, collaborative management systems and tools comprise project management systems, electronic calendars and workflow systems. Moreover, various researchers categorize groupware applications into 2 categories with respect to time and place. In this scenario, an application that is used by all the staff members of an organization simultaneously is acknowledged as synchronous groupware application. Additionally, staff members can make use of similar application at different times using asynchronous groupware systems. The place connected types are collected, groupware that is utilized by people in same place as well as distance.Additionally, at the present, businesses, no matter what their working and operational structure is, as well experience the power of the augmented data and informational flow. In addition, businesses are continually receiving and transferring tons of data and information files through posts, telephones, online messengers, emails, and faxes. Normally, organizations use these tools to communicate with their clients as and suppliers, experts or for negotiations. In this scenario, the longer their collaboration with a supplier or client is, the more data and information they would be able to interchange. As well, as the business grows the figures of clients and suppliers also grow. Consequently, the amount of information rises at an exceptional rate. Thus, if these valuable data and information are not arranged it will cause many problems. Besides, they are certain that all of their staff workers work hard? In other words, organizations require high level quality and time-frames of their work. In situations of data and informational chaos, this is quite a complex job. In addition, generation of a variety of reports as well turns out to be a time-consuming task (MetaQuotes Software Corp., 2011) and (Computer Networks IT, 2011). Furthermore, the ineffective collaboration between a business system and government reduces the working competence of our staff members and nonmanufacturing overheads augment. Additionally, an organization turns out to be less well-organized, as their staff spends a greater amount of their time on technical tasks. Consequently, every client costs more and every working hour of organization’s workers formulates fewer investments into their company's efficiency. In this scenario, organizations make use of groupware applications for a multiplicity of causes. However, one main reason is to avoid the customary issues of having workers in dissimilar places who require performing tasks on similar function. In addition, by logging in to a communication network or intranet server, workers in diverse places are able to access the same application as well as get advantage from a variety of

Finance Policies and Strategies of Multinational Enterprise Essay

Finance Policies and Strategies of Multinational Enterprise - Essay Example Actively managing financial risks allows us to continue doing what we do best – designing and selling great products – instead of just reacting to problems linked to events beyond our control. These risks arise due to the unavoidable effects that some political and natural events have on currency exchange and interest rates. When one of the countries where we operate slides into an economic crisis, for example, a government might impose exchange or currency controls, affecting our cash flow, profits, and funds transfer mechanisms and creating potentially adverse effects on our finances and stock price. These risks arise both from the likelihood that something good will not happen or that something bad will happen (Read and Kaufman, 1997, p. 112). Financial risks are those that threaten the efficiency of the worldwide movement of money and profits amongst our affiliated companies through internal transfer mechanisms (Shapiro, 2003, p. 26). We are exposed to this risk that has several types, amongst which the most relevant given the events just outlined are currency, credit, inflation, and market risks. Although most of the critical events are non-political in nature, their effects on the respective national economies may cause political risks that we must address. Our cost of capital and debt is affected by fluctuations in exchange and interest rates, inflation, and stock market volatility. We also need to manage transaction exposures, the possibility of incurring gains or losses on sales, purchases, and investment decisions entered into and denominated in foreign currencies (Eiteman et al., 2004, p. 155-176). International Finance Strategies Risks are uncertainties and sources of anxiety we need to deal with. Most business and financial risks are caused by outside events and changes in economic variables (GDP growth, commodity prices, interest rates, foreign exchange rates, and stock prices) over which we have virtually no control (Froot et al., 1994). Our inability to control these events, however, does not mean we cannot manage their effects.We manage the consequences of financial risks by adjusting our operational, financial, and investment strategies. Some risks we can take and others we cannot.

Cell City Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cell City - Essay Example Cells can be structurally divided into two groups i.e. the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes. The basic difference between these two groups is that eukaryotes contain a nuclear membrane which surrounds the nucleus and the materials embedded in it whereas in prokaryotic cells the genetic material inside the nucleus is not surrounded by a membrane. The cells present in animals and plants are eukaryotic whereas the cells in bacteria, cyanobacteria, and mycoplasmas are prokaryotic. Organelles are part of cells which work together to complete the functions of the cells. As plant and animal cells are eukaryotic this essay would revolve around the eukaryotic cells only. The eukaryotic cells, in other words, have membrane-bounded organelles. Its constituents are the plasma membrane, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Ribosomes, Mitochondria, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Nucleus, Flagella, Cilia, Cell wall, Chloroplast, and vacuoles. The animal cells and plant cells have a difference of cell wall, vacuoles, and chloroplasts. The cell functions as a city to complete its functions. All the organelles work together just like in a city with collaboration so that the city is clean and everything goes on smoothly. These are the organelles of the cell which function together to produce qualitative results. The cell membrane is a very important structure which forms the outer covering of the cells. Its integrity and normal working are essential for the proper functioning of the human body as well as the carrying out of normal metabolic functions.... The main components of the cell membrane are the lipids and the proteins with the proteins forming a major component of the membrane. Fifty five percent of the cell membrane is constituted by proteins. That is for approximately fifty molecules of lipids, there is one protein molecule present. The proteins have a very important role to play in maintaining the shape of the cell membrane which is crucial for maintaining the form and working of the cell as well. Similarly in cities if these authorities let everyone enter the city then the integrity of the city can be put at stake. Proteins also have the ability to work as pumps for the passage of ions by the process of active transport which works against the normal diffusion gradient. They also act as carriers and work in moving substances by the process of facilitated diffusion which involves the movement of secondary substances in association with proteins for the purpose of transport. Glycolipids and glycoproteins also fulfill the fu nctions of the authorities in the city (1; 2; 7). Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is a fluid like substance inside the cell which has many proteins, electrolytes and glucose. It has different organelles embedded in it which function together to perform the city functions. Cytoplasm in a real city can be referred to as the land where different authorities are working together. When someone builds places on the land then the spaces of the land become hidden to anyone’s view and the same happens with the cytoplasm in which the organelles take the role of the places built in the city (3; 5; 7). Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum is a broad vesicular structure which contains of the endoplasmic matrix. Substances

Astronomy Homework Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Astronomy Homework Assignment - Essay Example Galaxies are not close to each other. Hence, perhaps at one point, there were star clusters at one place and galaxies closer to each other. The brilliant, Greek mathematician and astronomer, Eratosthenes of Cyrene had an easier way of using geometry in determining the size of the earth (Woolfson 22). He assumed that the sun was miles away, perhaps compared to the distance between the ancient city Cyrene and Alexandria in Egypt where he was the chief librarian. Hence, concluding that the rays from the sun at these locations must have been parallel. There is an error in this assumption because the sun is in constant motion and Cyrene is also due south of Alexandria. Hence, such parallel angles in locations, as he suggested are likely to change. Though Ptolemaic system had several observable failings, it still remained as an accepted science for more than 1800 years (Woolfson 24). Perhaps it is because it was a geocentric model which had unanswerable questions which were mostly based on rational reasoning. In addition, the Catholic Church in the middle ages had supreme authority and had widely accepted Ptolemy’s philosophy. Therefore, any person opposed to the geocentric system got punished because the person was guilty of heresy, a crime at time. Galileo proved that the sun was at the centre, based on several observations he made about Venus (Woolfson 34). By using the telescope he saw that Venus had similar phases to the moon. The nature of these phases was only explainable if Venus was going around the sun. Through this he found out that Earth orbits around the Sun, proving that the Sun is at the centre. During Nicholas De Cusa’s time in 1401 to 1464, The Catholic Church was not the supreme authority because his views showed that he believed that each religion is of equal value. During Giordano Bruno’s time in 1584, The Catholic Church had a lot of powers sentenced people to death for a crime such as witchcraft (Woolfson 35). Hence, the

Are laws that protect us from our own dangerous behaviors (such seat Essay

Are laws that protect us from our own dangerous behaviors (such seat belt or helmet) morally acceptable - Essay Example Controversies over the laws which are basically designed for protecting people from dangerous behavior are problems of paternalism. Paternalism is interference in people’s freedom though it is for their own good. It is like a father making decisions for his kids instead of letting the kids make decisions for them, considering one important thing that father knows best. Wide range and variety of laws, practices and actions are taken into account which is under the principles of paternalism. More like a doctor or physician deciding what is best for his patients and the laws which are designed to restrict the use of cocaine, marijuana, heroin and other drugs. Such plans also include compulsory retirement plans, mandatory seatbelt laws which are designed to protect one’s interest whether they are liked by the people or people detest them. All these paternalistic practices are common, but the question is whether these practices are morally accepted or not. There is conflict of two important values attached with paternalism which include the value is taken into account for protecting and also promoting well being of others, along with the value which is associated with the freedom of persons which make their lead their life according to their wish and choice. When the people are ready to act in certain ways oppose to their own well being and security , an important question arises that are the laws justified which interfere in people’s private choices and matters. This is what leads to the problem of paternalism. There is a majority who would agree that paternalism becomes a justified thing when it is about a person who has limited and also impaired freedom of choices whether the cause of this is limited cognitive capacities or even the ignorance of facts, effects of a disease, influence of drugs and another reason can be due to coercion. Paternalism varies depending on the person, their emotional stability and behavior along with the capacity to understand and know what is best for them. According to many moral philosophers, a competent and a knowledgeable person should be allowed to make decisions freely and they should not be over ridden, though they are for their own person’s good. There was a case voiced by John Stuart Mill who was a British philosopher during the nineteenth century, according to him the only reason due to implement and make laws for the citizens and people of civilized community is to prevent problems and harm to others. Will of one’s own being is not enough physically and even morally. The laws are made for a collective society and laws which are beneficial and important for protecting the society over all. According to Mill, it was important to provide freedom as it is important and crucial for people’s individual personality development. Along with that people should be given a free hand for making choices they wish and like even if the choices are not the best ones. All these individual choices creates ability for people to make decisions and their decision making power will only improve their practices and experiences. Another important view which he holds was that individuals are the best judge for

Guns Germs and Steel Essay Example for Free

Guns Germs and Steel Essay Yali asked the question of â€Å"why is it that you white people developed so much cargo and brought it to New Guinea, but we black people had so little cargo of our own?† (Diamond 14) In other words, he is asking â€Å"what is the factor between our people and ours that causes human development to proceed at different rates?† (Diamond 16) What Yali is really asking though, is, what is this mysterious factor? According to Diamond, the basis for development is the environment around us including the resources and the native people of New Guinea don’t live in an area where a chance is provided for them to take advantage of. The natural resources are just enough for them to get by. This is why the people of New Guinea produce so little â€Å"cargo† of their own. Pizarro’s capture of Atahuallpa and destruction of the Incas made the Europeans realize what power they head, and what they could do to the rest of the world. They easily wiped out the Inca’s of 80,000 with 168 men. From the Battle of Cajamarca, Pizzaro came back to Charles I saying that Europe had the power to conquer the Americas. There were reasons Pizarro and the Europeans could conquer the Americas†¦ They had better warfare than the Incas. Pizarro’s men had armor rode horseback and used steel compared to their wooden weapons. Eurasia happened to have an abundance of edible material because of the right environment leading to the domestication of plants and animals led the people to settle down in one place instead of being nomads. When people started to settle down and bring the food to them, they started to have a surplus which led for the people to have extra jobs and it started to also support a higher population while allowing women to have more children contributing to job specialization. These specialists were not devoted to farmers or food producers but varied to priests, blacksmiths etc. Permanent agriculture societies were able to from with the food surpluses leading to empires. Some of the reason that people began to settle down and farm are because at the time many wild foods began to decrease due to hunters and gatherers killing off too many large animals leaving life unsustainable. More wild plants that could be domesticated became available at the time. Technological advances allowe3d people to harvest and store greater amounts of food that they cultivated. Human populations rose it’s not clear how much it caused food production and how much food production caused it but researchers believe there’s a connection. As populations rose, they needed to have better food supplies and started farming. The farm societies were able to drive out neighboring hunter-gatherers. A continent with long east-west axis like (Eurasia) has an advantage over continents with long north-south axes (like Africa and the Americas). The reasons it does have to do with crops and longitude. In general similar crops can grow at similar longitudes. In other words a cropped that developed in one place can be spread east to west (or west to east) but less likely to spread north and south. Epidemic diseases developed among the societies that had been farming the longest. These were Eurasian societies. Societies in the Americas, Australia, and other places had not been farming as long and lacked epidemic diseases. When Europeans came in contact with Native Americans, for example, European epidemic diseases killed huge percentages of the Native Americans. This helped the Europeans conquer and the conquest made them richer and more powerful. Therefore germs help to answer Yalis question. The societies that did independently invent writing were those with complex hierarchies and so phisticated systems of food production. Writing was needed for politics and was generally learned by bureaucrats who had the comfort of available time and energy. As food was available to them, they had no need to hunt and gather for themselves. Since their basic needs were being met, they could focus on a higher level of existence and communication. There are two conditions in which technology may develop. The first is â€Å"mother necessity ideology† which is when a society needs something to make things easier they invent it. Technology differed from place to place because there were more people to invent and better diffusion to spread the invention. The opposite happened in the Americas because there were less people and a slower diffusion rate. Also different cultures had different ideas for change. The only way that society can emerge is through food. Such developments include jobs, such as the chief and the beginnings of government. The institutions of society changed over time based on how organized they were. They evolved based around various factors like war and other societies. They are related by diffusion. Whenever a state is conquered by another state they enforce use of their technology or exploit it. States are going to develop weapons, troops, and religion in order to make the state survive. They develop in response to need of their population size. They use these agents of conquest to become larger and to conquer other societies; and for that they need guns, germs, and steel. What Diamond is saying is that he thinks that people really should not think that history is so much different from the sciences. He is saying that the study of history can be pretty scientific if it is done correctly (and that some sciences are not as precise as things like chemistry). Diamond is trying to argue that historians should use what he calls natural experiments. He thinks that there are many experiments where there are two or more places that are pretty similar in many ways but which then turned out differently (like his experiment in Chapter 2). He argues that historians can use these they can look at what was different and what was similar and how the differences led to the differences in the outcomes. Guns, Germs, and Steel Book Review I think Diamond’s central intent of writing the book is to explain how varying societies become dominate, and how certain others can become dominated. By looking at environmental conditions that caused the disparities that lead to certain societies developing guns, germs, and steel, including other technology, and forming a government necessary for conquest. He introduced the book with Yali’s question â€Å"Why is it that you white people developed so much cargo and brought it to New Guinea, but we black people has so little cargo of our own?† This question used a scientific/geographic background, and set his intent is to answer the question or inform how to answer the question. He also tries to analyze the causes of the expansion of civilizations’ in some parts of the world, since all people are physically the same what could cause some to be successful and others to die? He used archaeological and historical case studies and evidence from genetics and linguistics, he argued that technological and gaps in power are not caused by race or culture differences but by environmental differences, He used the idea of the axis as one saying that Eurasia had an east to west (or west to east) therefore having an advantage over Africa or the Americas for instance, because crops could grow at the same longitude but it was more difficult as they went north and south. Also when cultural or genetic differences have favored Eurasians like for example written language or resistance to epidemic diseases he says these advantages occurred because of the influence and geography on societies and cultures and were not inherited as genes from Eurasian ancestors. Diamonds book argues that the differences in progress for different societies around the world do not result from one group being smarter or more resourceful than another. Rather, he focuses on the impact of geography whether food and other key items were plentiful, whether and how disease spread, and how these developments led to different levels of industrialization, and wealth The book â€Å"Guns, Germs, and Steel† was very well written in the sense that Diamond had a question in which was the foundation of the book, he throughout the book acquired evidence and explanations and ideas of how to answer the question. The book had evidence to back it up by explaining how Eurasia had a better opportunity being west to east meaning they had better crop farming. Which led to a growing civilization and soon conquest. The book wasn’t exactly dull or boring but it wasn’t exciting or entertaining either. It was like any other history book it asked a question, then went on to the point. There was an explanation of the main topic which was Yali’s question and evidence that dealt with answering the question. From beginning to end, Diamond stresses that he rea lizes that efforts to compare societies have frequently been used by racists or nationalists to belittle groups or justify mistreatment of them. He argues that his analysis is in fact anti-racism at work because it shows that the white people who enjoy the comforts of modern life are ultimately luckier than, not more deserving than, people in impoverished nations.

Female Offenders: Harsher Sentences In Courts

Female Offenders: Harsher Sentences In Courts Most research implies that there is a significant difference in the way women and men ware treated by the criminal system and that these differences are mainly due to the operation of gender stereotypes. Research studies have hypothesised that gender does affect sentence in a number of ways. The effect is not necessarily explicit and it may or may not to the woman offenders apparent advantage. This implies that it may be harsher or more lenient as compared to that of the male offenders. It has also been suggested that the fact that men and women enter the criminal justice system in ways that are different and the fact that they also have different characteristics might have an effect on the way they are treated by the system. Based on this, this paper seeks to discuss whether female offenders receive harsher sentences in courts than do their male counterparts based on their gender status. In discussing whether female offenders are treated differently from their male counterparts by t he criminal justice system, this paper will also review the various theoretical frameworks from early feminists and classical theorists. It will also include explanations on the historical background of the issue and on some features of the maleness of law. Pollak (1961) argues males in the criminal justice system are captivated by women offenders causing them to treat them leniently. This thesis is however criticised by Heidensohn (1985), one of the known feminists who argues that Pollaks theory is based on female biology making it unsociological, ahistiorical and ideological. He goes on to suggests that apart from the committing the crime, female offenders are also tried for their femininity hence face double jeopardy. As such, they receive harsher sentence and crime as compared to the male offenders. Female offenders are also usually punished for their sexual misbehaviour, in the event it exists, which is not the case with the male counterparts. Based on this argument, the courts apply a double standard for female offenders. This paper will therefore look at cases in which women offenders buy into the gender contract and other cases in which women receive harsh treatment as well as sentences by the criminal justice system. The paper will discuss at how the law views females and how this is connected to the way in which women offenders are treated differently (either harshly or more lenient) from men. The question of whether female offenders are treated less harshly by the criminal justice system is also inherently related to the debate of why there has been an increase in female offenders. Simon (1975) and Adler (1975) argue that due to the womens liberation movement, a theory referred to as the liberation thesis, women have over the years become more men-like. Simon Landis (1991), explain that feminist calls for equality has caused a decline in chivalry within courts in the way they treat female offenders. Based on these arguments and theories, this paper will discuss how the courts, one of the agencies of the criminal justice networks treats women offenders during passing of sentences. In discussing this question, it is worth to note that historically and even presently, women commit less crime than males. According to the British criminal statistics, there are various differences between male and female offenders. According to the Home Office (2003), women constituted only 19 percent of the known offenders. The statistics also show that women commit also commit crimes that are violent such as theft, fraud and robbery. 75 percent of crime committed by women is theft and handling according to these statistics. It is however worth to note that women commit less violent crimes as compared to their male counterparts (Lise, 2009). They however participate in all types of criminal activities (Lise, 2009). Statistics also imply that female offenders are more likely to be cautioned for crimes and offenses that are indictable than men. Figures show that the cautioning rate for women was 44 pe5cent as compared to 27 percent for men. Research also showed that women were less likely to be charged after being arrested for offenses than men. 52 percent of women arrested were charged as compared to 60 percent of men arrested (Lise, 2009). According to Lambrose Ferrero (1995), there are less criminals among females than there are among males and that female criminals have more anomalies than the normal women. According to these theorists, female offenders do not act in accordance with the standards pre-defined and are regarded to be pathological hence require to be removed from the society or undergo treatment to make them normal. Courts therefore tend to punish female offenders for their offenses and for not complying with the pre-defined standards. This is implies that they receive double punishment which is not so with the male counterparts. As such, female offenders receive harsher sentences than males by courts. Market Demographics | Marketing Essay Market Demographics | Marketing Essay Executive summary: When you ask for Kleenex, everyone knows you are asking for a tissue. Although the number of rivals has been increased especially during the last decades, today, Kleenex with its worldwide popularity and its strong brand that built within its eighty years old understands needs of its different customers. Obviously, one of the major group of the customers, are men. Although the mens beauty care market lags the womens by some time, a new report pointed that the male grooming market has been increasing at double digit growth rates over the last decade in the US that in turns widespread in the other parts of the world. The economic downturn has tempered optimism but the mens beauty market remains one of the best performing segments in the personal care sector, according to a new report by Diagonal Reports. Men are now catching up with women with demand for mens hair coloring and fair skins having now taken off, decades after the womens coloring boom. A fundamental change in male behavior towards their appearance is responsible for this growth. Very large numbers of men are much more interested in their appearance than previously and interested in a different way than was the case. As one male grooming expert pointed out, Many men have a new attitude to appearance, it is no longer just functional, and they want their appearance to be in fashion. Hence, we have just concerned about men as women, children and others that in turns directed us to think about providing a new product for them. For this reason, we thought about producing new tissues that have some unique aspects especially for men and could help to protect and improve their skin and their appearance. Even though, the traditional categories like ultra- soft tissue and Kleenex lotion continue to be the most purchased products, a growing number of men are beginning to experiment with other, less traditional cosmetics and toiletries products, such as facial cleansers tissue, as well as face and body tissue with rejuvenate property by adding vitamins like vitamin E, sun block, green tea extract and exfoliation substances in the middle layer of the tissue. These core materials are the most sought after by dandy man who want to keep skin full of life in tissues daily use. 2.0 Situation Analysis Kimberly-Clark Corporation (Kimberly-Clark) is one of the leading consumer product companies in the world. It holds the first or the second position globally in terms of market share in more than 80 countries. It has operations in 36 countries and sells its products in more than 150 countries. The companys well-known family care and personal care brands such as Kleenex, Scott, Andrex, Huggies, Pull-Ups, Kotex, Poise and Depend are top ranking brands in terms of market share in more than 80 countries. High consumer loyalty and strong brand recognition help the company garner a substantial market share. However, economic slowdown in the US and Eurozone could adversely affect demand for Kimberly-Clark products. 2.1 Market Summary 2.1.1 Market Demographics The profile of the interior views customer consists of the following geographic, demographic, psychographic, and behavior factors: Geographics We have set first geographic target area, which is Malaysia. After successful hit the Malay market, we will expand our new product in Asia area then spread across the world. According to Malaysia demographics profile 2009, male population between 15-64 years is now 8,210,373(31.9% of total population of 25,715,819) we assume the population between 18 to 45 years old to be 20%. Demographics Male Have attended college Able and young, affluent customers A combined high annual income The age range from 18 to 45,more than 60% clustering around 18-25 years old Social class cover from the working class to middle class, upper uppers Psychographics All men who take care of themselves, concerned with their appearance Protect and improve their skin is important for them He perceives himself as tasteful and able, and they insist on Many men have a new attitude to appearance, it is no longer just functional, and they want their appearance to be in fashion. Behavior Factors The behavior of target customer is what accepted as masculine has shifted considerably throughout the times, so the modern concept of how a man should be differs from the ideal man of previous eras. Some styles and behaviours that are today considered feminine, in the past were, part of the mans domain (e.g., makeup, jewellery). He take pride in having an active role in using man care products Once they try, it is hardly to convertible They often show up at following places: Man SPA centers Mens salons and barbershops Golf club 2.1.2 Market Needs Kimberly-Clark Corporation is providing the men who are living in urban districts with facial tissues; The Company seeks to fulfill the following benefits that are important to its target consumers: High Quality: Based on our target market, the costumers are pursuing a higher quality of life. Attitudes and habits are changing among male consumers regarding their hygiene, grooming and physical appearance, as well as the purchasing habits among men. Rejuvenate property: Add vitamins like vitamin E, sun block, and green tea extract and exfoliation substances in the middle layer of the tissue. These core materials are the most sought after by dandy man who want to keep skin full of life in tissues daily use. Customer service: Exemplary service is required to build a sustainable business that has a loyal customer base. 2.1.3 Market Trends With men becoming more involved with their grooming habits and the explosive growth in the mens segment we saw a huge opportunity to introduce the male consumer tissue to a new proposition in skincare. Younger men are clearly more interested in taking care of themselves than their fathers or even their older brothers. But is it because metro sexuality has become more widely accepted by the masses or simply because of their generations habits? Its a generational thing. The guys in these generations get their bodies waxed, work out, style their hair, go to tanning salons, etc., more than their predecessors. they were raised on MTV, the Internet and reality shows, every minute of their lives is a photo-opportunity, they always want to look like theyre ready for their 15 minutes of fame, and dont think theres anything feminine about that. Using metro sun block among groups of friends going to beach or swimming pools which is really relevant in Malaysia because of its climatic situation is a notable trend. Another trend is using metro aroma in groups of boys parties and special ceremonies and weddings with wide range of aromas which can satisfy different tastes in wide range of groups. The other trend is using of Kleenex  ®metro with vitamin E for nourishing and rejuvenating the skin especially among men between 30 to 45 years old who strongly have desire to be always in centre of attention still keeping their skin nourished and shiny to make them more attractive. 2.1.4 Market Growth With changing men habits of fashion life and tending to show more and more attention to be sensitive about their appearance, the market for men care products is growing. As men using these kinds of products, a lot of companies are trying to establish new product line in their portfolio specially designed for men. By increase in number of producers and variety of men products, the companies should try to set the prices still competitive to remain in this market and grow in the same time to satisfy rate of growing people in this market segment. 2.2 SWOT Analysis The following SWOT analysis captures the key strengths and weakness within the company and describes the opportunities and threats facing Kleenex. Strengths Weaknesses Strong market position and brands Diversified business portfolio Strong growth in revenues and profits Lack of scale Business concentration Opportunities Threats Growth in Asian markets Acquisition and alliances Increasing preference for natural personal care products Intense competition Increasing oil prices 2.2.1 Strengths Strong market position and brands Kimberly-Clark has a strong market position. It has operations in 36 countries and sells its products in more than 150 countries. The company is well-known for its family care and personal care brands. It holds the first or the second position globally in terms of market share in more than 80 countries. Focus on building brands has helped Kimberly-Clark capture a strong market position. The companys brand portfolio includes some of the most popular brands of the world such as GoodNites, Cottonelle, Kleenex, Scott, Andrex, Hakle, Huggies,etc. The companys brand recognition has helped it to achieve consumer loyalty overtime ensuring a high market share. Diversified business portfolio Kimberly-Clark has a diversified business structure. The companys operations are carried out through personal care, consumer tissue, Kimberly-Clark professional and others, and health care segments. The companys personal care segment contributed 41.4% of the total revenues in 2007; consumer tissue derived 35.4%, Kimberly-Clark professional other 16.6%, health care 6.6%.The companys revenues grew by 9.1% in 2007, because of higher sales volumes, favorable currency effects, increased net selling prices and an improved product mix. The company is not over dependent upon on any one business. A diversified business portfolio helps the company cope with fluctuations in any one of its businesses and has led to a stable revenue growth. Strong growth in revenues and profits Kimberly-Clark has recorded a strong growth in revenues and profits in the last few years. Its revenues have increased at a compounded annual growth rate, CAGR (2005-2007) of 7% from $15,902 million in 2006 to $18,266 million in 2008. The companys profitability has also increased in recent years. Its operating profit increased at a CAGR (2005-2007) of 6% from $2,311 million in 2005 to $2,616 million in 2008. Similarly, the companys net profit also increased during (2005-2007) from $1,568 million in 2005 to $1,823 million in 2007. Robust financial performance strengthens the financial position of the company and provides a platform for future growth. 2.2.2 Weaknesses Lack of scale The company lacks the scale to compete with large players in the industry. Many of the companys competitors are much larger in size in terms of revenue generated and number of employees. Kimberly-Clark generated $18,266 million and employed 53,000 people in 2007, while one of its key competitors, Johnson Johnson (JJ) generated revenues of about $61,095 million in 2008 and employed about 119,200 people worldwide. Another competitor, The Procter Gamble Company (PG) generated revenues of about $76,476 million and employed 138,000 people in 2007. Owing to its relatively small scale of operations, the company could find it difficult to face competition. Business concentration Kimberly-Clark has concentrated operations both in terms of geography and customers. In the fiscal year 2007, the company derived approximately $10,192.1 million (53.9%) of its revenues from North American region; out of which $9,875.6 million (52.2%) came from the US alone. In terms of customer concentration, Wal-Mart, the companys largest customer, contributed approximately 13% to its revenues since 2005. High dependence upon a single large customer like Wal-Mart could reduce the bargaining power of the company. Any decrease in revenue from this customer could have an adverse effect on the companys revenues and profits. Moreover, the company is exposed to risks associated with the single economy, while its competitors such as The Procter and Gamble Company with significant operations in other countries are guarded against such a risk. 2.2.3 Opportunities Growth in Asian markets The consumer products and personal care products businesses are driven significantly by three basic demographic factors: population growth, household formation and household income growth. These factors are now driving strong growth in many of the companys developing markets including Asia, especially India and China. The companys sales increased in developing markets by 12% in 2008. In addition, in the categories in which Kimberly-Clark competes, developing countries currently represent a $4.5 billion market that is predicted to reach $5.2 billion by 2010. Moreover, the company has its operations in 36 countries. This provides Kimberly-Clark with the opportunity to enhance its market share as well as expand its presence in other categories. Acquisition and alliances Kimberly-Clark has been expanding its portfolio of services by entering into strategic agreements, and acquiring organizations to strengthen its position in the industry. For example In January 2007, ICG Commerce a leading procurement services provider signed a five-year contract to provide certain sourcing and supply management activities for Kimberly-Clark Corporation. This move will allow Kimberly-Clark to direct its resources on innovation, brand-building and other capabilities that will drive long-term sustainable growth. Further, In March 2008, Kimberly-Clark reached an agreement to purchase the remaining stake in its South African subsidiary, Kimberly-Clark of South Africa (K-CSA) from The Lion Match Company wholly-owned subsidiary of FASIC Investment Corporation Limited. K-CSA is a leading manufacturer and marketer of tissue, personal care and business-to-business products and also markets Kimberly-Clarks line of health care products. Kimberly-Clarks increased ownership in K-CSA will enhance its growth potential in African region. The companys alliances in these areas would allow it to further strengthen its existing business or gain a strong foothold in new sectors and markets. Increasing preference for natural personal care products Some consumers are realizing the power of treating their skin with vitamins, botanicals and avoiding such ingredients as parabens and sulfates. Consequently, natural and organic products are being seen and appreciated as being safe, efficacious, earth-friendly beauty solutions that are better for ones well-being. Another reason why natural ingredient based skincare and personal hygiene products are perceived as healthier and better is that natural as a standalone word/concept strongly implies a healthy balance. In that way, it can elicit an emotional response from consumers and therefore has strong relevance to emotional wellness. Kimberly-Clark can capitalize on this growing trend by launching more natural personal care products. 2.2.4 Threats Intense competition The personal care businesses are characterized by intense competition throughout the world. The company competes in selected product categories against a number of multinational manufacturers. In addition to products sold in the mass-market and demonstrator-assisted channels, the companys products also compete with similar products sold in prestige department store channels, through door-to-door or mail-order marketing or through telemarketing by representatives of direct sales companies. Brand recognition, quality, performance and price influence the consumers choice among competing products and brands. Advertising, promotion, merchandising, the pace and timing of new product introductions, line extensions and the quality of in-store sales staff also have a significant impact on consumers buying decisions. Kimberly-Clarks major competitors include Georgia-Pacific Group, Johnson Johnson, Playtex Products and Procter Gamble Company. Increasing oil prices Fuel costs for the company represent a significant portion of its distribution cost, thereby, affecting its operating margin. A number of the companys products, such as diapers, training and youth pants, incontinence care products, disposable wipes and various health care products contain certain materials which are principally derived from petroleum. These materials are subject to price fluctuations based on changes in petroleum prices, availability and other factors. The company purchases these materials from a number of suppliers. The crude oil prices have been increasing in recent years. The crude oil prices rose from $60 per barrel in October 2006 to $126 per barrel in May 2008. The price of natural gas has also increased. The short-term outlook indicated further increase in oil and natural gas prices. The surprise fall in US energy stocks and Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)s decision to stick to its current output levels are expected to keep oil prices above the key $100 mark. Higher fuel prices are likely to have a direct impact on the companys distribution cost and may directly affect its margins. 2.3 Competition Kimberly-Clark Corporation is forming its own market for male tissue products. Although there are companies that do make tissues and toiletries, So far the Kleenex is the only brand thoroughly designed for men, especially metro-sexual. 2.4 Product offering We decide to offer three products for the first run, all of them have been designed to attract the target market of metrosexual men, although have potential attractiveness among other groups. These products are designed to be easily hold and used by target market and have a clear advantage because of their special life style: Tissues with Vitamin E: Nourishing and rejuvenate the skin Tissues with Sun block creams: protect skin from UV damage Tissues with Aroma: perfume attracting, relaxing and anti stress effect They also have been designed in three packs for ease of use and different rate of use: 50 tissue pack 25tissue pack 10 tissue pack 2.5 Marketings key success factors The key to success is designing and providing something special for a relatively high portion in market that matches their needs and have potential to go further of their expectation because of its high quality material and special features which have been introduces new to market and has the support of one of the best brand tissue companies (Kleenex), so it already has a good name because of the brand and by combining it with high quality and special features according to customer needs and demand can achieve a reasonable success in the market. 2.6 Critical issues Using the Kleenex brand reputation this product should be always monitored in order to keep the quality high and constant. Pursue and control the growth rate to ensure that this product line revenue always exceeds the expenses to ensure the profitability of this product line. Customer satisfaction should be carefully monitored to prevent the thread of new similar products. In other word it should always exceed the customer expectation. 3.0 Marketing strategy The marketing strategy for introducing and maintaining this product is focus on male care and increase in attractiveness of this issue among the group which covers a high portion of Malaysia population (20%) that prepares the grounds for achieving reasonable and successful growth in this market. Special differentiation of this product is its nourishing and rejuvenating feature. (3) 3.1 Corporate mission Kleenex ®metro strive to provide the finest special application tissues in combination with best quality resources. We recognize that only companies that build sustainability into the way they do business will have enduring success. Our business relies on natural resources such as wood fiber, energy and water. It is clearly in our best interest to design products and manufacturing processes that conserve these resources and secure their availability for the future. Measurable and attainable objectives: short term / long term goals 3.2 Marketing objectives of the plan Maintain positive growth by diversifying products for different purpose of usages, for example developing new products using during body building or other physical exercises, (Product development strategy.) Trying to steadily increase demand by penetrating among other male and/ or female groups (using in beauty salons, sport teamsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) 3.3 Financial objectives Increase sales by 2% in the year 2011. (1) According to Malaysian demographic profile (2009), population growth rate is 1.7%, we use this figure in financial growth rate and assume that financial growth rate is 2% accordingly. Allocate 10-15% of sales revenue to RD projects each year Allocate 5% of sales revenue to corporate social responsibility each year Achieve 30% sales growth rate till 2013. (10% growth each year) (2) We have used NIVEA for men annual report, using its sales growth forecast here. 3.4 Target markets profiles Now the number of men who are changing their purchasing habits towards personal hygiene, grooming and physical appearances products is increasing. So, all men who take care of themselves and concerned with their appearance are our target market. We call them Metrosexual Men. The age interval of this segment is between 18 to 45 years old, with 60% concentration on men around 18-25 years old, men who really care into rejuvenating and protecting skin during their daily life. The income of dandy man is the secret of attractiveness of this segment which is relatively high. In addition the growth rate of this phenomenon is tremendous over the past several years. (3) According to Malaysia demographics profile 2009, male population between 15-64 years is now 8,210,373(31.9% of total population of 25,715,819) we assume the population between 18 to 45 years old to be 20%. More than 27% of men are using these products nowadays. However, another 35% of men today say that they are interested in trying them, but have not yet made the leap. (4) These figures are based on the results of our questionnaire survey. 3.5 Positioning Kleenex ® Metro, using Kleenex brand tissues trademark and industrial experience in the market since 1924, wants to position itself as the premier company in producing and offering high quality nourishing, rejuvenating and anti- UV tissues especially designed for dandy men. 3.6 Strategies Using Kleenex as a well-known brand among the society the marketing strategy tries to attract customers among groups in several ways. First one is redesigning the Kleenex website, allocating a dominant position to Kleenex  ®metro. Second and major one is promoting by viral marketing as our target segment have rigorous relation and connection to internet, specially websites, blogs and emails. The third strategy is using famous brand ambassadors for promoting the product on boards in cinemas, fashion magazines and related literatures. Using brand ambassador is relatively high cost advertising but has a great effect on this target market. After customer awareness we focus on other comparatively low cost options especially viral marketing and websites. 3.7 Marketing Mix Product positioning product description, value added features Value Proposition Statement (VPS): The extra ordinary new feeling of new Kleenex Metro-softness with fabulous odor, more lively rejuvenated skin for those who indulge in metro-sexuality. Point of Parity (POP): Softness and fabulous odor are the two major similarities of this product and others. Point of Difference (POD): Nourishing and rejuvenating the skin could be considered as the two main differentiations of the product. Price- Pricing strategy, incentives (sales, discounts): The pricing objective is a combination of four subjects; first and for most, affordable luxuries is the most considerable objective for this product, since it characterized by high levels of perceived quality and status among the consumers. Secondly, as the company has been produced tissues for many years it plagued more with intense competition and changing consumers wants. Hence, survival could be mentioned as another objective in this situation. Thirdly, it is better to set the price that provide maximum marginal profit that in turns lead to maximum current profit, cash flow or rate of return on investment. Therefore, maximum current profit is the other objective for the company. Last but not the least, as producing the new product requires a relatively new technology, it is better at first to set higher price compare with normal product and slowly lowered over time. Then, market- skimming pricing is the other objective. Price setting method: We select a method of combination of the value perceived by the consumers and their assessments and the competitors price and the price of substitutes. In fact, there is a mutual relationship between consumers and product; on the one hand the product should deliver the value promised by its value proposition and on the other hand the customers must have perceived this value, so the premium pricing could be charged in this situation. Although, our product has some unique aspects, we considered the some products that maybe seem to look like our product in some other criteria too. Therefore, we have mentioned the price of those products based on the survey that we have done through some supermarkets, super stores and pharmacies (Carrefour, Cold Storage, Watson and Vita care). Elasticity of demand: Since the luxuries aspect of the product is more dominant, its demand relatively hardly changes with a small change in price, hence, we can consider that it is inelastic. Price: With consideration of especially these two previous items (the method and inelasticity of demand) and some other criteria like tendency of customers to process the prices in left-to-right manner we set the price for our product as below: Incentives for increasing sales volume: Discount and Allowances are two major categories that we could mention in this situation, especially for early payment (below than 15 days) and more volume purchases by the customers. Furthermore, we can consider some functional discount or trade discount for some channel members if they will perform certain functions that specified by the company; for instance if they could keep the records, the company can allocate extraordinary discount to them. C- Place-sales area, distribution At the beginning we have just considered Malaysia as our distribution area. Channel of distribution: Selective distribution: All the retailers and intermediaries willing to carry the products. Marketing channels: retail stores, wholesalers/distributors and sales force. Retailers: Department store; Parkson, Metrojaya, Isetan and Jusco Supermarket; Cold Storage Superstore; Carrefour, Tesco and Giant Specialty stores; Guardian, Apex, Prima Health and Watson SPA centers; that regularly visited by our target customers Mens salons and barbershops Wholesaler: All merchant wholesalers (full-and-limited service jobbers and distributors) Competing brand: No relevant competitor most likely have a lower price range D Promotion advertising methods, public relations We want to use two major marketing communication mixes: Personal influence channels: 1-Distribution of free 10-15 tissue sample packs at strategic business locations during the rush hours (especially at weekends nights). 2-Appointment with spokesperson, celebrities and brand ambassador Non personal communication channels: Sales Promotion: we intend to draw stronger and quicker response from buyers, moreover, we want to highlight our product offer, hence we can mention about consignment booths, product samples and prominent shelf displayers in the outlets. Place Advertising; we want to increase the number of spontaneous buying decisions, so we can apply for using ads on shopping trolleys, shelves, floor space, in-store demonstration. Publicity and PR; we intend to attract attention to the product launch and instill credibility, therefore we had better to consider about special events, sponsoring celebrations the national and conventional events, press releases in this situation. Advertising; as we want to increase the number of consumers who utilize the product and recognize it as a value product, we must apply for advertising on Newspapers, Magazines; especially for Male, Outdoor, highway billboards and Internet) We will also focus on Kleenex website and use of viral marketing in our strategy for advertising and promoting the product. Finally, as we have specified our audiences; all men especially Juvenile and young men (18-45 years old), we can follow the communications process model effectively in most of the relationships and communications with our customers. 3.8 Marketing Research As Kleenex is a very well-known brand and has a strong experience in launching and establishing many kinds of tissues, it has a good opportunity in testing its new products using its facilities, laboratories, scientists and experts. It has also a good position in tissue market to convince the customers in free toll zones for example for tourists and people who go holidays in special zones, such as Penang or Lankawi in Malaysia to achieve a strong feedback from its customers and improve the product. 4.0 Financials: This section will offer the financial overview of Kleenex Metro, from the sales forecasting perspective. We do believe that we should take into consideration the conservative sales forecasting in order to have a more realistic estimation. For making related the financial overview to marketing activities and marketing expenses, we can expect to cover the marketing expenses from the sales of the second year. The expenses forecast will be used as a tool to keep the department on target and provide indicators when corrections or modifications are needed for the proper implementation of the marketing plan. The purpose of the financial part of Kleenex Metro marketing plan is to serve as a guide for the organization. The revenue, expenses, customer satisfaction, and etc will be monitored to gauge performance. Key planning assumptions (sources of information) (1) According to Malaysian demographic profile (2009), population growth rate is 1.7%, we use this figure in financial growth rate and assume that financial growth rate is 2% accordingly. (2) We have used NIVEA for men annual report, using its sales growth forecast here. (3) According to Malaysia demographics profile 2009, male population between 15-64 years is now 8,210,373(

Analysing The Women Rights In Egypt Sociology Essay

Analysing The Women Rights In Egypt Sociology Essay The term womens right refers to freedoms and entitlements of women and girls of all ages. These rights may or may not be institutionalized, ignored or suppressed by law, local custom, and behavior in a particular society. These liberties are grouped together and differentiated from broader notions of human rights because they often differ from the freedoms inherently possessed by or recognized for men and boys and because activists for this issue claim an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls. Issues commonly associated with notions of womens rights include, though are not limited to, the right: to bodily integrity and autonomy; to vote (suffrage); to hold public office; to work; to fair wages or equal pay; to own property; to education; to serve in the military or be conscripted; to enter into legal contracts; and to have marital, parental and religious rights. Women and their supporters have campaigned and in some places continue to campaign for the same rights as men. Women in ancient Egyptian: In ancient Egypt, womens rights reached a level that has rarely been equaled in any civilization right up to modern times. This was unusual in the ancient world and led to condemnation from neighboring states. Rather than being seen as the weaker sex, women were often portrayed as being just as violence as men.   Queens are shown crushing their enemies; executing prisoners and firing arrows at male opponents in battle. Women were also treated the same under criminal law and would suffer the same punishments as men for their crimes, including being executed if convicted of a capital offence.   However if it was found the offender was pregnant then her execution was delayed until after the birth. Although most official posts were given to men, women were known to hold high office.   There were female overseers, governors and judges and at least one, Queen Hetepheres II, ran the civil service.   Two women were given the role of vizier (prime minister), the highest administrative position and six even achieved the title of pharaoh. Women from poorer families were also free to find work and were often employed in traditional female roles such as maids, nannies and midwives.   According to Joseph Perkins of Minnesota State University, some are known to have started small businesses out of their homes often considerably increasing the family income through making and selling products such as linen or perfume.   Professional opportunities were also available to some women, such as director of dance and even physicians.   Female doctors are known to have been skilled enough to perform caesarean sections and to surgically remove cancerous breasts. The suffrage awarded to women allowed them to enjoy a high level of financial freedom.   Possessions, property and debt acquired by a woman through labour or inheritance was seen as separate from her husband and if she became a widow, she was entitled to inherit one third of the property they jointly owned, with the rest divided between the late husbands children and siblings. Despite their freedoms, Egyptian women were most commonly bestowed with the title of Lady of the House and were expected to run the home and bear children.   For poorer families, large numbers of offspring were necessary to provide extra sources of labour and income but for the wealthy few.   With both male and female servants to tend to daily chores and child rearing, richer women spent much of their time in leisure pursuits like listening to music, taking care of their pets, playing board games, eating good food and drinking fine wines. It is as mothers, sisters, wives and daughters to pharaohs, that royal women were most influential to the state.  Pharaohs also had a host of minor wives, who often were able to wield some influence and as succession did not necessarily go to the eldest son, they had the opportunity to become mother to a pharaoh. Pharaohs would often have a host of women known as Ornaments of the King who were chosen for their beauty and employed to entertain with singing and dancing.   Although this seems more in keeping with treatment of women elsewhere, in Egypt, they were important participants in court life and were active in royal functions, state events and religious ceremonies. Women often played a key role in the priesthood with royal women holding the title Gods Wife, a position of great political significance second only to the pharaoh, for whom they sometimes stood in.   Female priestesses also played a significant role in the religious life of ancient Egypt, participating alongside men in rituals, earning a living as professional mourners and sometimes acting as funerary priests. As warriors, intellectuals, priestesses, political figures and even rulers, the women of ancient Egypt enjoyed a large degree of suffrage.   Many had the opportunity to advance themselves to an extent that was not achieved again until the twentieth century and a financial equality that many women still fight for to this day. Women in Egypt now a day: Rural and lower-class Egyptians generally believed that women were related to men. Women were expected to be under control of male relatives, to avoid contact with men who were not from the family, and to veil themselves in public. As children women learned to accept dependency on their fathers and older brothers. After marriage women expected their husbands to make all decisions. Early married life could be a time of extreme subordination and insecurity. The new wife usually lived with or near her husbands family and was expected to help her mother-in-law in the house. A young wife was under pressure from her husband and his family until she gets pregnant. Barrenness was a womans worst possible misfortune, and not giving birth to a son was almost as bad. Women who had only daughters were called mothers of brides. Most families continued having children until they had at least one son. As the womans gets married, and her sons matured, her position in the family grew more secure. The sexual behavior and reputation of the women of a line age were the most important components of a familys honor. A bad reputation for one woman meant a bad reputation for the whole line age. Honor was essential to social life; without it even a minimal social standing in the community was impossible. Men were especially interested in maintaining honor. Women were always on their best behavior around men from other families because they were afraid of getting a bad reputation. A bad reputation could disgrace the men of her family. A disgraced husband could restore his status, however, through divorce. Most disgraced fathers and brothers in rural and lower-class urban families, however, believed that honor could only be restored by killing the daughter or sister suspected of sexual misconduct. Family members who murdered the women were prepared to accept legal penalties for their actions. Women have traditionally been preoccupied with household tasks and child rearing and have rarely had opportunities for contact with men outside the family. But since the 1952 Revolution, social changes, especially in education, have caused many women to spend time in public places among men who were not related to them. To limit womens contact with these men, practices such as veiling and gender segregation at schools, work, and recreation have become commonplace. Furthermore, lower-class families, especially in Upper Egypt, have tended to withdraw girls from school as they reached puberty to minimize their interaction with men. Lower-class men frequently preferred marriage to women who had been secluded rather than to those who had worked or attended secondary school. Egypts laws pertaining to marriage and divorce favored the social position of men. Muslim husbands were traditionally allowed to have up to four wives at a time in accordance with Islamic religious custom, but a woman could have only one husband at a time. A Muslim man could divorce his wife with ease by saying I divorce thee on three separate occasions in the presence of witnesses. A woman wishing to dissolve a marriage had to instigate legal proceedings and prove to a court that her husband had failed to support her or that his behavior was having a harmful moral effect on the family. The laws required men to support their ex-wives for only one year after a divorce, and the fathers gained custody of the children. A man faced few or no penalties if he refused to provide equal support to his wives or if he refused to pay alimony to his divorced wife. Divorce was much more difficult for Copts than it was for Muslims. Common law regulated the marriages and divorces of Copts. A new law reversed many of the rights accorded to women in 1979. A woman lost her automatic right to divorce her husband if he married a second wife. She could still petition a court to consider her case, but a judge would grant a divorce only if it were in the interests of the family. If a divorce were granted, the judge would also determine what an appropriate residence was for the divorced woman and her children. Since the early 1970s, womens status has been changing, mostly because an increasing number of women have joined the nonagricultural workforce. According to government estimates, the number of working women doubled from 500,000 to 1 million between 1978 and 1980. By 1982 women accounted for 14 percent of all wage-earning and salaried employees throughout the country. Although substantial numbers of women were in the professions, particularly education, engineering, and medicine, most women held low-paying jobs in factories, offices, and service industries. Half of all employed women held jobs such as street cleaners, janitors, hotel and domestic servants, and hospital aides. In 1990 women accounted for more than 12 percent of all industrial workers; most female factory workers were in textiles, food processing, and pharmaceuticals. Strategy and Proposal 1-Reasons for choosing the topic: My main reason for choosing this topic to be my documentary because a lot of people didnt know what is the women right and how the women in the ancient Egyptians having a very high position were and was much honored at that time. Today a lot of men are knowing that women having all their rights and even more than they deserve. In addition, this documentary will be exposing the different between the women in ancient Egyptian which she was having all her rights and even more, and the women now a day in Egypt which she suffering and fight to get her minimum rights in living a good life. Women were having their rights in the old ancient Egyptian era from 7000 years ago but now in the post modernity era the women still fighting and suffering to get their right. If we compare us to other Arab countries, we are behind. Other countries are going forward like in Yemen has judges, Sudan has judges; the general prosecutor in Syria is a woman. For that reason its important to discuss this topic to let all people from men women and teenagers know the rights for women and what could she do to asking for her rights. 2-Message of the documentary: The main message from this documentary is to raise awareness of men about the women right to know how to treat them and may be trying to help women to get their rights. Also, to raise awareness of women and girls because they should know their rights which Qassem Amen and Huda Saharawi fight to gutted for them. Also, to know that women rights were settled from the great ancient Egyptian era not only when Qassem Amen wrote about it, in ancient Egyptian era women were having their all rights so all women and girls should take them their leaders and do like them or try to be like them and get their rights. 3-Target audience: The main target audience related to this documentary is women , ages from 25 to 45who suffering from being treated badly or didnt get their rights that they deserves. The young girls, ages from 18 to 24, who are not knowing their history or their rights and they going to graduated and starting their carrier life. They should decide what they want to be like their great ancient Egyptian women or give up and dont get their rights. Also, men, ages from 25 to 45, they should know what women right is and to know how to treat women. 4-Expected interviews: Random peoples opinion about women rights to know what they know about it. People who are working in women rights to help us to know more about what women right is. Egyptian writer wrote about women right in ancient Egyptian era to elaborate how they got their rights. Interview with Mona Helmy an Egyptian journalist who wrote a lot of articles about women write now a day. 5-shooting places: Shots for women infront of courts trying to get their rights. Shots for Doctor Mona Helmy in her office. Shots for seminars about women rights. Shots for people in the streets. 6-Sequence of the documentary: The documentary will start by showing some footages for ancient Egyptian women queens and gods Then some other footage for women in Egypt suffering infront of courts trying to get their rights. Then an Egyptology will talk about how the women in ancient Egyptian getting their rights Then the documentary will then proceed giving peoples opinion about women rights now a day. Then the Egyptian Dr Mona Helmy will discuss the women rights now a day. Finally, will telling the people how to try learning from our Egyptian civilization and let the women get their minimum rights. 7-Visual list: The documentary will include some footages of 8-Question of the documentary: Random people in the street: What did you know about women rights? Do you know any thing about women rights in ancient Egyptian era? Did you think women take all her rights? Do you think women could be a judge or not and why? Random women infront of court: What is your case? Did the low help you in getting your right quickly? Did you think you have all your rights? Dr.Mona Helmy: What is your opinion about women today in Egypt? Did she get all her wrights? Did your article about women rights do something for women? In your opinion, what should the Egyptian women do to get all her rights? 9-Script of the documentary: video audio Situation Analysis 1-Background of the topic: Women in ancient Egyptian: An exception to most other ancient societies, Egyptian women achieved parity with Egyptian men. They enjoyed the same legal and economic rights, at least in theory, and this concept can be found in Egyptian art and contemporary manuscripts. The disparities between peoples legal rights were based on differences in social class and not on gender. Legal and economic rights were afforded to both men and women. Egyptian womens rights extended to all legally defined areas of Egyptian civilization. Women could manage, own, and sell private property, which included slaves, land, portable goods, servants, livestock, and money. Women could resolve legal settlements. Women could conclude any kind of legal settlement. Women could appear as a contracting partner in a marriage contract or a divorce contract; they could execute testaments; they could free slaves; women could make adoptions. Women were entitled to sue at law. This amount of freedom was at variance with that of the Greek women who required a designated male, called a kourios, to represent or stand for her in all legal contracts and proceedings. This male was her husband, father or brother. An Egyptian woman could acquire possessions in many ways. She could receive it as gifts or as an inheritance from her parents or husband. Or she could receive it from purchases with goods which she earned either through employment, or which she borrowed. A woman had claims to up to one-third of all the community property in her marriage. Womens legal rights: The Egyptian womans rights extended to all the legally defined areas of society. From the bulk of the legal documents, we know that women could manage and dispose of private property, including: land, portable goods, servants, slaves, livestock, and money (when it existed), as well as financial instruments (i.e., endowments and annuities). A woman could administer all her property independently and according to her free will. She could conclude any kind of legal settlement. She could appear as a contracting partner in a marriage contract or a divorce contract; she could execute testaments; she could free slaves; she could make adoptions. She was entitled to sue at law. It is highly significant that a woman in Egypt could do all of the above and initiate litigation in court freely without the need of a male representative. This amount of freedom was at variance with that of the Greek woman who required a designated male, called a kourios, to represent or stand for her in all legal con tracts and proceedings. This male was her husband, father or brother. Womens property rights: There were several ways for an Egyptian woman to acquire possessions and real property. Most frequently, she received it as gifts or as an inheritance from her parents or husband, or else, she received it through purchaseswith goods which she earned either through employment, or which she borrowed. Under Egyptian property law, a woman had claim to one-third of all the community property in her marriage, i.e. the property which accrued to her husband and her only after they were married. When a woman brought her own private property to a marriage (e.g., as a dowry), this apparently remained hers, although the husband often had the free use of it. However, in the event of divorce her property had to be returned to her, in addition to any divorce settlement that might be stipulated in the original marriage contract. A wife was entitled to inherit one-third of that community property on the death of her husband, while the other two-thirds was divided among the children, followed up by the brothers and sisters of the deceased. To circumvent this possibility and to enable life to receive either a larger part of the share, or to allow her to dispose of all the property, a husband could do several things: 1) In the Middle Kingdom, he could draw up an imyt-pr, a house document, which was a legal unilateral deed for donating property. As a living will, it was made and perhaps executed while the husband was still alive. In this will, the husband would assign to his wife what he wished of his own private property, i.e., what he acquired before his marriage. An example of this is the imyt-pr of Wah from el-Lahun. 2) If there were no children, and the husband did not wish his brothers and sisters to receive two-thirds of the community property, he could legally adopt his wife as his child and heir and bequeath all the property to her. Even if he had other children, he could still adopt his wife, so that, as his one of his legal offspring, she would receive some of the two-thirds share, in addition to her normal one-third share of the community property. A woman was free to bequeath property from her husband to her children or even to her own brothers and sisters (unless there was some stipulation against such in her husbands will). One papyrus tells us how a childless woman, who after she inherited her husbands estate, raised the three illegitimate children who were born to him and their female household slave (such liaisons were fairly common in the Egyptian household and seem to have borne no social stigma). She then married the eldest illegitimate step-daughter to her younger brother, whom she adopted as her son, that they might receive the entire inheritance. A woman could also freely disinherit children of her private property, i.e., the property she brought to her marriage or her share of the community property. She could selectively bequeath that property to certain children and not to others. Such action is recorded in the Will of Naunakht. Women in contracts: Women in Egypt were consistently concluding contracts, including: marriage and divorce settlements, engagements of wet-nurses, purchases of property, even arrangements for self-enslavement. Self-enslavement in Egypt was actually a form of indentured servitude. Although self-enslavement appears to have been illegal in Egypt, it was practiced by both men and women. To get around the illegality, the servitude was stipulated only for a limited number of years, although it was usually said to be 99 years. Under self-enslavement, women often technically received a salary for their labor. Two reasons for which a woman might be forced into such an arrangement are: (1) as payment to a creditor to satisfy bad debts; (2) to be assured of ones provisions and financial security, for which a person might even pay a monthly fee, as though they were receiving a service. However, this fee would equal the salary that the provider had to pay for her labor; thus, no money would be exchanged. Since this service was a legal institution, then a contract was drawn up stipulating the conditions and the responsibilities of the involved parties. In executing such an arrangement, a woman could also include her children and grandchildren, alive or unborn. One such contract of a woman who bound herself to the temple of Saknebtynis states: The female servant (so so) has said before my master, Saknebtynis, the great god, I am your servant, together with my children and my childrens children. I shall not be free in your precinct forever and ever. You will protect me; you will keep me safe; you will guard me. You will keep me sound; you will protect me from every demon, and I will pay you 1-1/4 kita of copper . . . until the completion of 99 years, and I will give it to your priests monthly. If such women married male slaves, the status of their children depended on the provisions of their contracts with their owners. Women before the bar: Egyptian women had the right to bring lawsuits against anyone in open court, and there was no gender-based bias against them, and we have many cases of women winning their claims. A good example of this fact is found in the Inscription of Mes. This inscription is the actual court record of a long and drawn- out private land dispute which occurred in the New Kingdom. Significantly, the inscription shows usfour things: (1) women could manage property, and they could inherit trusteeship of property; (2) women could institute litigation (and appeal to the court of the vizier); (3) women were awarded legal decisions (and had decisions reversed on appeal); (4) women acted as witnesses before a court of law. However, based upon the Hermopolis Law Code of the third century B.C., the freedom of women to share easily with their male relatives in the inheritance of landed property was perhaps restricted somewhat. According to the provisions of theHermopolis Law Code, where an executor existed, the estate of the deceased was divided up into a number of parcels equal to the number of children of the deceased, both alive and dead. Thereafter, each male child (or that childs heirs), in order of birth, took his pick of the parcels. Only when the males were finished choosing, were the female children permitted to choose their parcels (in chronological order). The male executor was permitted to claim for himself parcels of any children and heirs who predeceased the father without issue. Female executors were designated when there were no sons to function as such. However, the code is specific thatunlike male executorsthey could not claim the parcels of any dead children. Still, it is not appropriate to compare the provisions of the Hermopolis Law Code to the Inscription of Mes, since the latter pertains to the inheritance of an office, i.e., a trusteeship of land, and not to the land itself. Indeed, the system of dividing the estate described in the l aw codeor something similar to it- -might have existed at least as early as the New Kingdom, since the Instructions of Any contains the passage, Do not say, My grandfather has a house. An enduring house, it is called (i.e., dont brag of any future inheritance), for when you take your share with your brothers, your portion may only be a storehouse. Female literacy: It is uncertain, generally, how literate the Egyptian woman was in any period. Baines and Eyre suggest very low figures for the percentage of the literate in the Egypt population, i.e., only about 1% in the Old Kingdom (i.e., 1 in 20 or 30 males). Other Egyptologists would dispute these estimates, seeing instead an amount at about 5-10% of the population. In any event, it is certain that the rate of literacy of Egyptian women was well behind that of men from the Old Kingdom through the Late Period. Lower class women, certainly were illiterate; middle class women and the wives of professional men, perhaps less so. The upper class probably had a higher rate of literate women. In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, middle and upper class women are occasionally found in the textual and archaeological record with administrative titles that are indicative of a literate ability. In the New Kingdom the frequency at which these titles occur declines significantly, suggesting an erosion in the rate of female literacy at that time (let alone the freedom to engage in an occupation). However, in a small number of tomb representations of the New Kingdom, certain noblewomen are associated with scribal palettes, suggesting a literate ability. Women are also recorded as the senders and recipients of a small number of letters in Egypt (5 out of 353). However, in these cases we cannot be certain that they personally penned or read these letters, rather than employed the services of professional scribes. Many royal princesses at court had private tutors, and most likely, these tutors taught them to read and write. Royal women of the Eighteenth Dynasty probably were regularly trained, since many were functioning leaders. Since royal princesses would have been educated, it then seems likely that the daughters of the royal courtiers were similarly educated. In the inscriptions, we occasionally do find titles of female scribes among the middle class from the Middle Kingdom on, especially after the Twenty- sixth Dynasty, when the rate of literacy increased throughout the country. The only example of a female physician in Egypt occurs in the Old Kingdom. Scribal instruction was a necessary first step toward medical training. Women in public: The Egyptian woman in general was free to go about in public; she worked out in the fields and in estate workshops. Certainly, she did not wear a veil, which is first documented among the ancient Assyrians (perhaps reflecting a tradition of the ancient semitic- speaking people of the Syrian and Arabian Deserts). However, it was perhaps unsafe for an Egyptian woman to venture far from her town alone. Ramesses III boasts in one inscription, I enabled the woman of Egypt to go her own way, her journeys being extended where she wanted, without any person assaulting her on the road. A different view of the traveling women is found in the Instructions of Any, Be on your guard against a woman from abroad, who is not known in town, do not have sex with her. So by custom, there might have been a reputation of impiousness or looseness associated with a woman traveling alone in Egypt. Despite the legal freedom of women to travel about, folk custom or tradition may have discouraged that. So, e.g., earlier in the Old Kingdom, Ptahhotep would write, If you desire to make a friendship last in a house to which you have access to its master as a brother or friend in any place where you might enter, beware of approaching the women. It does not go well with a place where that is done. However, the theme of this passage might actually refer to violating personal trust and not the accessibility of women, per se. However, mores and values apparently changed by the New Kingdom. The love poetry of that era, as well as certain letters, are quite frank about the public accessibility and freedom of women. Womens occupations : In general, the work of the upper and middle class woman was limited to the home and the family. This was not due to an inferior legal status, but was probably a consequence of her customary role as mother and bearer of children, as well as the public role of the Egyptian husbands and sons who functioned as the executors of the mortuary cults of their deceased parents. It was the traditional role of the good son to bury his parents, support their funerary cult, to bring offerings regularly to the tombs, and to recite the offering formula. Because women are not regularly depicted doing this in Egyptian art, they probably did not often assume this role. When a man died without a surviving son to preserve his name and present offerings, then it was his brother who was often depicted in the art doing so. Perhaps because it was the males who were regularly entrusted with this important religious task, that they held the primary position in public life. As far as occupations go, in the textual sources upper class woman are occasionally described as holding an office, and thus they might have executed real jobs. Clearly, though, this phenomenon was more prevalent in the Old Kingdom than in later periods (perhaps due to the lower population at that time). In Wentes publication of Egyptian letters, he notes that of 353 letters known from Egypt, only 13 provide evidence of women functioning with varying degrees of administrative authority. On of the most exalted administrative titles of any woman who was not a queen was held by a non-royal women named Nebet during the Sixth Dynasty, who was entitled, Vizier, Judge and Magistrate. She was the wife of the nomarch of Coptos and grandmother of King Pepi I. However, it is possible that the title was merely honorific and granted to her posthumously. Through the length of Egyptian history, we see many titles of women which seem to reflect real administrative authority, including one woman entitled, Second Prophet (i.e. High Priest) of Amun at the temple of Karnak, which was, otherwise, a male office. Women could and did hold male administrative positions in Egypt. However, such cases are few, and thus appear to be the exceptions to tradition. Given the relative scarcity of such, they might reflect extraordinary individuals in unusual circumstances. Women functioned as leaders, e.g., kings, dowager queens and regents, even as usurpers of rightful heirs, who were either their step-sons or nephews. We find women as nobility and landed gentry managing both large and small estates, e.g., the lady Tchat who started as overseer of a nomarchs household with a son of middling status; married the nomarch; was elevated, and her son was also raised in status. Women functioned as middle class housekeepers, servants, fieldhands, and all manner of skilled workers inside the household and in estate-workshops. Women could also be national heroines in Egypt. Extraordinary cases include: Queen Ahhotep of the early Eighteenth Dynasty. She was renowned for saving Egypt during the wars of liberation against the Hyksos, and she was praised for rallying the Egyptian tro